Rhetoric

Having addressed non-artistic proofs and the three kinds of oratory, Aristotle devotes Book 2 to artistic proofs beginning with character and emotion. He explains the importance of this examination: “[T]he speaker must not merely see to it that his speech [as an argument] shall be convincing and persuasive, but he must [in and by the speech] give the right impression of himself, and get his judge [audience] into the right state of mind” (91). Aristotle divides the character (ethos) of the speaker into three parts: intelligence; character; and good will—he will return to this topic later. The author also broadly divides all emotions into three points which the speaker must bear in mind if he is to excite any emotion in his listener: the listener’s mental state; who is usually the target of their emotion; and what factors usually cause this emotion in the listener.

What follows is an examination of 14(often opposing, but not always) emotions: anger; mildness; friendship; enmity or hatred; fear; confidence; shame; shamelessness; benevolence; pity; indignation; envy; emulation; and contempt. For each, Aristotle provides definitions and examines the circumstances that are often attendant. Some emotions receive more in-depth treatment than others.

Aristotle argues that anger is caused by slights, which come in three forms: contempt; spite; and hubris (a Greek term generally translated as wanton insult, outrage, or insolence).